BIO 111 - Principles in Biology (Laboratory)

There are two central systems for measuring, the Imperial system of measurement and the Metric system of measurement. In the Imperial System, all measures are based on the imperial units such as pounds, feet, inches, gallons, ounce, centigrade, etc. Metric system measurements are modern and standard, more accurate and easier to use because it is based on factors of ten. Whereas most countries use the metric system of measurements measuring in meters, grams, Celsius, etc., the United States still uses the imperial system where things are measured in feet, inches, and pounds.

All life exists within the context of its environment. Each environment is characterized by its biological, physical, and chemical properties. Since organisms are adapted to a specific environment, radical changes in these conditions often result in injury to the individual or possibly extinction of the species... Chemical reactions that take place inside of an organism are dependent upon both internal and external chemical and physical properties. We will explore some of these properties in today’s lab.

Biological systems are made up of four major classes of macromolecules: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids (nucleic acids will be covered separately later). Each of these macromolecules are polymers consisting of many small repeating molecules also known as monomers. The monomers hold together by covalent bonds.

In science, unlike the layman's definition, the word theory is used for a hypothesis about which there is a large body of convincing evidence. Under experimental conditions, all observations have thus far confirmed the theory. The evidence that helped formulate the theory was obtained using the microscope. The microscope is of enormous importance to biology and has extended our ability to see beyond the scope of the naked eye.

Cells fall into one of two broad categories: prokaryotic and eukaryotic. We classify only the predominantly single-celled organisms Bacteria and Archaea as prokaryotes. Animal cells, plants, fungi, and protists are all eukaryotes.

Diffusion is the movement of a substance from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration due to random molecular motion. Osmosis is the diffusion of water across a semipermeable membrane. The phenomenon of osmosis only deals with water, not any other chemicals that may be dissolved in that solution. Both diffusion and osmosis can take place simultaneously in the same cell.

Food consists of carbon-containing molecules which store energy in the chemical bonds between their atoms. Organisms use the atoms of food molecules to build larger organic molecules including proteins, DNA, and fats, and use the energy in food to power life processes. By breaking the bonds in food molecules, cells release energy to build new compounds.

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is located in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells (animals, plants, fungi, and protists). DNA contains information to direct the cell in the manufacture of proteins. Proteins control development, organ function, metabolism, enzymatic reactions, photosynthesis, muscle action, brain activity, and many other cellular processes. DNA is often referred to as the “blueprint for life.”

The cell cycle is the series of events of maintaining a cell, growth, development, increase the number of organelles, and division. This process is divided into two phenomena: mitosis and meiosis. Mitosis is the cell division of any body cells (other than gametes), where meiosis is the division of only gametes - sperm and egg cells.

Because of Gregor Johann Mendel’s work, the fundamental principles of heredity were revealed, which are often referred to as Mendel’s Laws of Inheritance. We now know that genes, carried on chromosomes, are the basic functional units of heredity with the capability to be replicated, expressed, or mutated.

There are about 200 different types of cells in a human body. Some cells have subtypes. Muscle cells, white blood cells, brain cells to name a few have subtypes of cells. These subtypes have different structures and functions. For example, there are three subtypes of muscle cells. Each of them looks different and function in a different way. But in a broader sense they all function towards the contraction of the muscle. Cells make up our tissues and organs. All these cells are categories depending on their specific function into tissues.

In this lab, you will explore the organs associated with the male and female reproductive systems, their functions, physiology behind gamete production and maintenance of the gonads, hormonal control of sperm production and ovulation, along with other physiological processes.

Like animals, plants contain cells with organelles in which specific metabolic activities occur. Unlike animals, however, plants use energy from sunlight to form sugars during photosynthesis. In addition, plant cells have cell walls, plastids, and a large central vacuole: structures absent in animal cells. While individual plant species are unique, all share a common structure: a plant body consisting of stems, roots, and leaves. They all transport water, minerals, and sugars through the plant body in a similar manner.